What Did the Romans Eat? A Comprehensive Guide to Roman Cuisine and Dietary Practices

The Roman Empire, stretching from its legendary founding in CCLIII BC (753 BCE) to the fall of the Western Empire in CDLXXVI (476 CE), was a civilization renowned for its cultural and culinary diversity. Food played a central role in Roman society, reflecting social status, regional resources, and trade networks. Roman numerals, used in inscriptions, market records, and cookbooks like Apicius’ De Re Coquinaria (circa I–V, 1st–5th century CE), help historians date and understand Roman dietary habits. But what did the Romans eat, and how did their diet shape their empire?

The Role of Food in Roman Society

Food in ancient Rome was more than sustenance; it was a marker of wealth, status, and cultural exchange. The empire’s vast reach—spanning modern-day Italy, France, Egypt, and beyond—allowed Romans to access diverse ingredients through trade and conquest, documented in numeral-marked records like CVI (106 CE) for Dacian grain imports. Diets varied significantly between social classes, regions, and periods, with Roman numerals helping to chronicle these differences in market lists, recipes, and inscriptions.

The Roman diet can be examined through:

• Staples: Core foods consumed by all classes.
• Meals: Daily eating patterns and social dining.
• Regional Variations: Influences from provinces.
• Luxury Foods: Elite dining practices.

Staple Foods of the Roman Diet

The Roman diet was built on a foundation of accessible, locally sourced foods, supplemented by imports. Below are the primary staples, with examples of their documentation using Roman numerals.

1. Grains: The Backbone of the Diet

Grains were the cornerstone of Roman cuisine, especially for the lower classes:

• Bread and Porridge: Made from wheat or barley, consumed as panis (bread) or puls (porridge). By CC BC (200 BCE), Rome imported wheat from Sicily, noted in records as M (1,000) modii (a unit of grain).
• Emmer Wheat: Used for puls, a staple until C BC (100 BCE), when bread became more common.
• Example: Pompeii’s bakeries, preserved after LXXIX (79 CE), show numeral-marked grain storage.

2. Legumes and Vegetables

Legumes and vegetables supplemented grains:

• Lentils and Beans: Affordable protein sources, listed in market records with numerals like C (100) for quantities.
• Cabbage, Leeks, and Onions: Common in soups and stews, as seen in recipes from I (1st century CE).
• Olives: Eaten whole or pressed into oil, with olive presses dated L BC (50 BCE) in inscriptions.

3. Fruits

Fruits were widely consumed, fresh or dried:

• Grapes: Used for wine, a daily drink, with vineyards dated CXLVI BC (146 BCE) in Greek conquest records.
• Apples, Figs, and Dates: Common snacks, with imports from Egypt noted in XXX BC (30 BCE).
• Example: Numeral-marked amphorae from XL BC (40 BCE) stored dried fruits for trade.

4. Meat and Fish

Meat was less common, especially for the poor:

• Pork: The most popular meat, especially for elites, with farms documented in CC (200 CE) records.
• Poultry and Game: Chickens, geese, and wild boar, noted in banquet menus from I (1st century CE).
• Fish and Garum: Fish sauce (garum) was a staple condiment, produced in factories dated CLX (160 CE) in inscriptions.

5. Dairy

Dairy products were consumed modestly:

• Cheese: Made from goat or sheep milk, listed in market records with numerals like L (50) for quantities.
• Milk: Less common, used in cooking or for children, as noted in CC (200 CE) texts.

Daily Meals and Dining Practices

Roman eating habits varied by social class and time of day, with numeral-dated texts providing insights into meal structures.

1. Meal Structure

Romans typically ate three meals, with names and times recorded in Latin texts:

• Ientaculum (Breakfast): A light meal of bread, cheese, or fruit, eaten at dawn, around VI (6 AM).
• Prandium (Lunch): A midday meal of leftovers or simple dishes, noted in I (1st century CE) household records.
• Cena (Dinner): The main meal, often elaborate for elites, held in the evening, as described in texts from LXXIX (79 CE).

2. Social Dining

Dining was a social event, especially for the wealthy:

• Convivia: Banquets with exotic dishes, documented in Apicius’ recipes (I–V, 1st–5th century CE).
• Triclinium: Dining rooms where guests reclined, with numeral-marked mosaics in Pompeii (LXXIX, 79 CE).
• Example: Petronius’ Satyricon (LXVI, 66 CE) describes lavish feasts with numeral-dated references.

3. Lower-Class Diets

The poor ate simpler fare:

• Plebeian Meals: Bread, porridge, and vegetables, with market lists from CC BC (200 BCE) noting C (100) modii of grain for public distribution (annona).
• Taverns (Popinae): Served cheap food, with graffiti from LXXIX (79 CE) in Pompeii listing prices in numerals.

Regional Variations in Roman Cuisine

The empire’s diversity, spanning over 40 modern countries by CVI (106 CE), introduced regional flavors, documented in numeral-marked trade records.

1. Italy

Central Italy relied on local staples:

• Pork and Wine: Dominant in Rome, with farms dated CC (200 CE).
• Olives and Wheat: Grown in Latium, recorded in L BC (50 BCE) inscriptions.

2. North Africa (Egypt, Tunisia)

North Africa was Rome’s breadbasket:

• Grain: Egypt’s wheat, shipped after XXX BC (30 BCE), marked with numerals like M (1,000) for quantities.
• Dates and Fish Sauce: Tunisia’s garum factories, dated CLX (160 CE), supplied the empire.

3. Gaul (France)

Gaul introduced new flavors:

• Wine and Cheese: Gallic vineyards, noted in L BC (50 BCE) records, rivaled Italian wines.
• Oysters: Coastal Gaul supplied seafood, with trade documented in C (100 CE).

4. Britannia (United Kingdom)

Britannia added local foods:

• Game and Barley: Consumed by legions, with supplies recorded in CXXI (121 CE) for Hadrian’s Wall.
• Apples: Cultivated locally, noted in CL (150 CE) texts.

5. Asia Minor (Turkey)

Eastern provinces brought spices and fruits:

• Spices: Imported via Syria, with trade routes dated LXIV BC (64 BCE).
• Pomegranates: Grown in Anatolia, marked in CC (200 CE) amphorae.

Luxury Foods and Elite Dining

The Roman elite enjoyed extravagant diets, contrasting with plebeian simplicity:

• Exotic Imports: Peacocks, dormice, and flamingo tongues, listed in Apicius’ recipes (I, 1st century CE).
• Spices: Imported from India, with trade records from CXV (115 CE).
• Banquets: Elaborate convivia, with numeral-marked invitations from LXXIX (79 CE) in Pompeii.

For example, Trimalchio’s feast in Satyricon (LXVI, 66 CE) describes lavish dishes, reflecting elite excess.

Role of Roman Numerals in Food Records

Roman numerals were integral to documenting food-related activities:

• Market Records: Listed grain or wine quantities, like C (100) amphorae, in CC BC (200 BCE) ledgers.
• Inscriptions: Amphorae and storage jars, dated XL BC (40 BCE), marked food origins.
• Recipes: Apicius’ cookbook (I–V, 1st–5th century CE) used numerals for ingredient measures.
• Public Distributions: The annona grain dole, recorded with numerals like M (1,000) modii, ensured food security.

These records help historians reconstruct Roman diets and trade.

Examples of Numeral-Dated Food Milestones

Key food-related events with Roman numeral dates include:

• CCXII BC (312 BCE): Aqua Appia aqueduct, improving urban food preparation.
• XXX BC (30 BCE): Egypt’s annexation, boosting grain imports.
• LXXIX (79 CE): Pompeii’s destruction, preserving food-related artifacts.
• CC (200 CE): Peak of garum production, with numeral-marked factories.

These dates anchor the evolution of Roman cuisine.

Why Roman Food Matters Today

Roman culinary practices influence modern diets:

• Cuisine: Italian dishes like pasta trace roots to Roman staples.
• Trade Networks: Roman food imports, dated with numerals like CVI (106 CE), prefigure global trade.
• Cultural Legacy: Numeral-dated artifacts, like LXXIX (79 CE) Pompeii finds, reveal dining habits.
• Culinary Terms: Words like “cuisine” (from Latin coquina) and numerals (MMXXV, 2025) persist.

Understanding Roman food connects us to their cultural and economic systems.

Common Misconceptions

1. Uniform Diet: Diets varied widely by class and region, from bread to exotic banquets.
2. Only Local Foods: Imports from Egypt (XXX BC, 30 BCE) and beyond were common.
3. Primitive Cooking: Roman recipes, like Apicius’ (I, 1st century CE), were sophisticated.

Tips for Studying Roman Cuisine

1. Learn Roman Numerals: Decode dates like LXXIX (79 CE) to read food-related inscriptions.
2. Explore Sources: Read Apicius or Pliny’s Naturalis Historia (LXXVII, 77 CE) for recipes and ingredients.
3. Visit Sites: See Pompeii’s bakeries or amphorae, marked with numerals.
4. Use Conversion Tools: Verify dates (e.g., 30 BCE = XXX BC) online.
5. Cook Roman Recipes: Try recreating puls or garum to experience Roman flavors.

Conclusion

The Romans ate a diverse diet of grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and meats, shaped by class, region, and trade. From the staple puls of the poor to the lavish convivia of the elite, their cuisine reflected the empire’s vast reach, documented in numeral-marked records like XXX BC (30 BCE) for Egyptian grain or LXXIX (79 CE) for Pompeii’s artifacts. Roman numerals in inscriptions, amphorae, and texts provide a timeline for understanding these practices. By exploring what the Romans ate, we gain insight into their culture, economy, and legacy. Whether decoding numeral-dated finds, studying recipes, or visiting Roman sites, this knowledge enriches our connection to an empire’s culinary heritage. Dive into Roman cuisine, practice numeral conversions, and savor the flavors of history!